Discovery of the solar system

The planets out to Saturn were known to ancient astronomers, who observed the wandering of these objects against the apparently fixed pattern of stars. Venus and Mercury were each identified as single objects despite the difficulty of connecting "evening" and "morning stars". It was also identified that the two non-pointlike objects, the sun and the Moon, moved across the same fixed background. However knowledge of the nature of these celestial drifters was entirely speculative and largely incorrect.

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The nature and structure of the solar system were long misperceived, for at least two reasons:
The Earth was considered stationary, and the motion of objects in the sky was therefore taken at face value: the sun was thought to orbit the Earth, for example (This conception of the universe, in which the Earth is at the center, is called the Geocentric model; geos means "Earth" in Greek).
Many solar system objects and phenomena cannot be perceived at all without technical aid.
Astronomers in ancient India however, believed that the Sun was the "centre of spheres", which is mentioned in Vedic texts dating back to the 9th–6th century BC. This was perhaps due to the importance of the fire god Agni in Vedic culture.

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Later in the 5th century, the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata, in his Aryabhatiya, formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system in which the Earth and the planets were taken to be spinning on their axes, and their periods were given with respect to a stationary Sun. He also discovered that the light from the Moon and the planets were reflected from the Sun, and that the planets follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun. Based on this model, he accurately calculated many astronomical constants, including the solar and lunar eclipses, while he also discovered that the planets don't orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity.
Over the last several hundred years, many further conceptual and technological advances have helped humans understand the solar system much better.

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The first of the conceptual advances in Europe was the Copernican Revolution, which proposed that the planets orbit the sun—models of the solar system with the sun in the center are called heliocentric (helios meaning "Sun" in Greek). Despite the name, the most striking and then-controversial Copernican realization was not that the sun was central but that the Earth was peripheral, orbital: planets had been considered merely points in the sky, but if the Earth itself was a planet, perhaps the other planets were, like Earth, huge solid spheres. Though this model is named afer Copernicus, it was Aristarchus of Samos who first suggested it in Europe.
Philosophically, there were a number of objections to heliocentrism:
The natural state of heavy, mineral objects like the Earth was believed to be at rest. The planets were believed to be made of a separate, ephemeral, light substance.
It was believed that the Earth's motion round the Sun would cause the air to fly off the surface.
If the Earth were mobile, astronomers should have been able to observe parallax of the stars, such as the stars appearing to shift in relation to further objects due to the Earth's change in position.

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The subsequent invention of the telescope gave the principal technological advance on discovering the solar system, with Galileo's improved version of the telescope rapidly giving benefit in terms of discovering satellites of other planets, especially Jupiter's four major satellites. This showed that not all objects in the universe orbit the Earth. However, perhaps Galileo's most important discovery was that the planet Venus has phases like the Moon, proving that it must orbit the Sun.
Then, in 1687, Isaac Newton devised his law of universal gravitation which explained the force that both kept the Earth moving through the heavens and also kept the air from flying away.
Finally, in 1838, astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel successfully measured the parallax of the star 61 Cygni, proving conclusively that the Earth was in motion.

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